A Comparison of Traditional and Non Traditional Way of Living Essay

A Comparison of Traditional and Non Traditional Way of Living - Essay Example However, there is not much pressure for children to break away from their families because they are taught to value family more than wealth. Moreover, the norms in our community suggest a simple and timid way of living. There is not much challenge that can really force a person to plan and strategize in order to break away from poverty and difficulties of rural living. Instead, the similar lives of each family somehow seem to say that life in Bhutan is just fine because it is how everybody in the community lives. Being of Nepali origin who was born in Bhutan, I became one of the refugees who suffered many difficulties. The refugee camps were made of bamboo, mud, and plastic. The camp is not a good place to live in but we did not have any choice. Therefore, we have to endure the extremely harsh circumstances brought to us. Living in camps is the worst experience I ever had. It was worse than the lives of many animals. Some animals are given good homes and enough food but we lived with just small spaces allotted for each member of the family. So many times, food is not enough for all of us so we learned to share what meager food is available. In addition, there was no electricity so we also suffered the heat and cold through changing seasons. We were also in dire need of water and sanitation. Life in camps means being thankful we are still alive. We had no right to complain. We only had to hope and pray that someday, the sun will shine brightly on us. Thankfully, that day finally came for me in 2010 when I resettled in the United States. The American lifestyle is completely different from what I have been used to. There are no friends to have a lazy chat with and no time that we can afford to waste. Even in rural areas, American living has high demands because of the standard of living.

Disipline in Schools Essay Example for Free

Disipline in Schools Essay The definitions of ‘violence’, ‘bullying’ and ‘indiscipline clearly incorporate a wide range of behaviors which can alter depending on both the context within which the behaviors are enacted, and, indeed, with whom they are directed towards. Discipline in schools is now passing through an extended eclipse. The problem of indiscipline permeates all facets of our life. It has, in fact brought us down to the knees Each day there are thousands of kids who go to school and get picked on in some way or another. Those same kids will probably come home and tell nobody about the pain that they are going through inside. There are numerous causes and solutions for this problem that we are facing in our schools. One main cause is that those doing the discipline problems suffer from bad parenting. I believe that parents need to be responsible for their children. They’re the ones who raised the child and filled them with their beliefs of what’s right and wrong. When a principle calls home about a child misbehaving and the parents do nothing , that just lets the child know that it’s alright for him or her to do it again. The parents will cause the child to form the mindset that he or she can do it again because they know that they won’t get reprimanded for their actions. Even if their child doesn’t get punished at home, that will lead the child to start acting out of control at school. Therefore, parents must take responsibility for their children’s behavior. The child needs to be teached that there will be consequences not only at school but homes as well for any discipline problems to be solved.

Great Expectations by Charles Dickens Essay Example for Free

Great Expectations by Charles Dickens Essay Dickens promptly introduces the reader to Pip who serves both as the retrospective narrator and as the young protagonist of the novel. This works on a two level approach with regard to guiding us through the plot as an omnipotent narrator whilst simultaneously leading us through Pip’s life with the immediacy of a first person narrative. It is clear from the beginning that it is Pip’s perceptions which entirely define the events and characters of the novel. Dickens utilises this dichotomy in the opening chapter by exploiting Pip’s narrative perspective. We are introduced to Pip as if in the midst of a pleasant conversation with him, ‘I give Pirrip as my father’s family name†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Immediately after however, we are subjected to the unravelling thoughts and fears of a frightened child under threat. This serves to capture our attention and instil a sense of compassion for Pip, for who we fear the worst. Dickens employs Pip as the narrator to present a prospective and prophetic relationship between himself and the escaped convict. As a reader, this initially appears to be a strange concept solely based on the power dynamics between Pip and the convict and his demands, with Pip reciprocating for fear of his life. However, as they part, Pip looks back to see the man walking alone into the marshes. This metaphorical image of the convict hugging ‘his shuddering body in both his arms’ on the horizons with the gallows, is strikingly familiar to the initial image we had of Pip who was holding himself in the cold, alone in the churchyard with the gravestones of his dead parents. As a reader, it appears that their relationship seems to warm at that moment, with the two sharing a common loneliness and marginalisation from society – the orphan and the escaped convict. Dickens uses this characterisation to develop our imagination of Pip, in that whilst Pip is afraid, he insti nctively displays a sympathetic reaction and remains resolute. Pip’s description of the convict when he first meets him seems elongated in response to the time he would have actually viewed him with, as he ‘only [had] a moment to see it’. Pip describes the convict as a man ‘who limped, and shivered, and glared, and growled’. The repetition of the word ‘and’ before each verb makes the list of the convict’s appearance sound considerably longer. The use of an iambic poetic rhythm further reinforces this idea that the list is made to sound longer. The words used to describe the convict are also stressed to sound more convincing, creating an extended metaphor of an animal. Pip is afraid of this ‘fearful man’ because of his animal like features and wounds. The portrayal of the convict cannot be easily forgotten for the reader and our imagination of him becomes almost reality. Dickens gives no clear indication of the man’s future in Pip’s life but he does create the sense t hat the convict will return, largely by building up a sense of mystery around the convict’s situation and his relationship with Pip. Dickens creates sympathy for Pip by making it explicitly clear that he has been deprived of parental guidance. He has never known his parents, ‘The shape of the letter’s on my father’s, gave me an odd idea that he was a square, stout, dark man, with curly black hair.’ This image of Pip being completely alone in a desolate cemetery trying to imagine the appearances of his parents makes us commiserate with him. We are also reminded of his youth and innocence with the childish conclusions he arrives at regarding the appearances of his parents. The gravestone reads ‘also Georgiana, wife of the above’, and in Pip thinking that his Mother’s name is actually ‘also Georgiana’, we sympathise with him for his lack of awareness. We are able to establish from this that Mrs Joe Gargery never mentions or talks about their Mother, which again makes us realise his lack of parental love. This light-hearted ponder at the gravestone’s inscriptions briefly lifts the sombre mood of the chapter which largely revolves around death, and allows Dickens to lessen the dramatic tension building up. We can conclude from this chapter that Pip has experienced loss and death at an early age but he seems accustomed to it. However, it could also reveal how Pip is lacking in certain life experiences, which we realise could affect him and his choices negatively in the future. We discover that Pip’s five younger brothers gave up trying to obtain a living exceedingly early in that ‘universal struggle’. Whilst they had ‘given in’ but Pip himself hadn’t, it reveals his resilience and strength to succeed. Knowing this, this early in the novel about Pip’s character, it infuses the read er with a sense of optimism about Pip and his future. Dickens concentrates heavily on the ‘bleak’ settings and grave moods to prepare the reader for a sense of what’s to come in the story, and of Pip. Dickens thoroughly describes the setting of the eerie Kent marshes in detail in order to deliver a definite mood early in the novel. The use of the setting in a graveyard works a mood of isolation and desolation; Pip is isolated by the fact he is an orphan. The graveyard itself is described as ‘bleak’ and ‘overgrown’, conveying that it has been neglected much like Pip himself. The repetition of ‘dead and buried’ further lowers the mood. Pip recalls that his ‘most vivid and broad impression of the identity of things’ is placed at a time between light and dark – perhaps symbolising the transition from good to bad, which we realise may be relevant later in Pip’s life. We see that Pip realises this whilst being shaken upside down by the convict, symbolising t hat he has a distorted view of things, with them perhaps being upside down themselves. Dickens sets the chapter in a graveyard to deliver a sombre mood. A wide open space seems harsher than an inside enclosed one, and Pip is less familiar with them. The external world offers Dickens a space to experiment with the idea of Pip being afraid of things he has not previously experienced. This makes Pip feel unsettled and isolated, which is passed on to an involved reader. The derelict setting is further reflected in the mood as Dickens describes the landscape surrounding the churchyard. He continually describes it as a ‘dark flat wilderness’ which is dreary in appearance and has the possibility to harbour deep and unknown dangers. Obstacles in the marshes such as ‘dykes’, ‘mounds’, and ‘gates’ work as visual obstructions for Pip but on a metaphorical level as symbols for possible upcoming obstacles in Pip’s life. Dickens maintains the use of words such as ‘flat’, ‘low’ and ‘darkâ€℠¢ which gives an eerie feel and dense mood to the opening chapter. There is also further symbolism in Pip’s surrounding, in that there is both a flowing river and flat, solid ground on the same landscape. This could reflect that there are two ways in which to travel the same distance and that Pip is soon to have to choose a path to take, which will in turn alter his life. This is thought provoking and concerning to us as a reader, whilst simultaneously intensifying the already dampening mood. The marshland is repeatedly represented as a place where good meets sin, and this is clear in the skyline. It has ‘long angry red lines and dense black lines intermixed’, and these frightening colours and the ‘darkness of the sky’ all accentuate Pip’s vulnerability in this graveyard full of misery, with the pathetic fallacy working to highlight his isolation. There are also only two vertical structures on the horizontal landscape of the marshes – a beacon and gallows. The beacon’s use is to guide sailors home and steer them from danger, whereas gallows are used to hang criminals for crimes they have committed. These two structures symbolise good and evil and the choices in which Pip is to make – leading to either a life of good or a life of sin. The ‘green mounds’ and ‘nettles’ all portray the hostility of everything against Pip, with connotations of something that could hurt him. The ‘wind’ rushes from the ‘distant savage lair’. This metaphor is used to describe the sea from which the ‘wind is rushing’ and the use of pathetic fallacy creates a harsh and tense atmosphere of a claustrophobic nature. However, to Pip, the wind is a wild beast and the ‘savage lair’ is the den from which the wind comes. This further intensifies the sympathy we as a reader have for Pip. To conclude, Dickens utilises the vulnerability and innocence of Pip to evoke both sympathy and anticipation for the young boy and his future. It is the confusion of the opening chapter’s happenings and the title ‘Great Expectations’ which makes us as a reader eager to continue the novel and our journey with Pip.

Cross-cultural differences on language learners

Cross-cultural differences on language learners Introduction In this article the authors tried to measure the impact of cross-cultural differences on language learners interpretation of imageable idioms. The definition of imageable idioms: ‘idioms that have associated conventional images (Lakoff 1987:447). The study reported in this article investigated whether these imageable idioms call up the same scene in the language learners mind as in the native speakers mind. Guessing the meaning of the figurative expressions such as Pass the hat around or Hang on someones sleeve appears not to be beyond the capacities of many language learners, even at lower-intermediate levels of proficiency. The authors hypothesize that idioms relating to a metaphoric theme (conceptual metaphors or source domains) that is more salient in the target culture will tend to be less easily ‘guessable to language learners that those relating to a metaphoric theme that is more or equally salient in the L1 culture. In the experiment 78 French-speaking university students were presented with the range of unfamiliar English imageable idioms and asked to ‘guess their meaning. Despite the absence of any contextual clues, about 35% of the participants responses overall were correct. The authors consider these data to offer (tentative) support to the hypothesis. Taking into account the conjectural results of the experiment I think the research should be more elaborated and improved to achieve cogent and convincing outcome of the project. Awareness of idioms extremely facilitates reading both printed media and fiction. Reasonable application of idioms makes speech more vivid, emotional, and significant. Behind these locutions there is a whole world, historical epoch, the mode of life, beliefs of the ancestors, and real events of the remote past. I chose this topic because I have always been interested in the idioms and phraseology as they reflect the culture and history of the language itself. It is a language through which we can connect to the mentality and lifestyle of the people of the target language, moreover, nature of thinking, universe, and perception of the world can be transferred. To know a language means to be able to feel value and depth of the culture and nation of the native speakers. SLA background to the article The problem of native language interference while learning a second language is one of the central issues of linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and SLA. During the process of learning a foreign language a learner can arbitrarily use earlier acquired languages as support, comparing and contrasting the phonetic, lexical, grammatical aspects of the mother and target language. In psychology interference is defined as transfer of skills, presenting as complex human psyche phenomenon, a process which allows a man to use in his acquired intellect and motoric activity upon absolutely new or relatively new circumstances. Psychologists established that formation of a separate skill is never independent; isolated process, it is influenced by and collaborated with the whole previous experience of a man. In other words, interference is interaction of skills where earlier acquired skills impact on establishment of new ones (Vereschyagin, 1976, 131). Basing on the stated above it is clear that during the process of second language acquisition the transfer of skills is founded on the usage of the past linguistic experience which is acquired command of a native language. Thus, communication skills formed at early childhood in certain way influence on second language acquisition. Communication skills transfer from the native language to a foreign language is spontaneous, unconscious process, hidden from direct observation and taking place independently from a speakers will or wish. From linguistic point of view the term ‘interference is used according to study an issue of languages contacting for notifying modifications which is observed in the learners speech as result of different language systems interaction. However, among linguists there is no total unanimity regarding language interference. However, today most linguists are convinced that the mother tongue can affect foreign-language learners. Linguists call this process of influence from the mother tongue transfer, which is also known as cross-linguistic influence. This process can occur in all aspects of language including the vocabulary, grammar and spelling. When transfer results in something correct because the rules of the first and the second language overlap, this is referred to as positive transfer. By contrast, when transfer results in something incorrect this is referred to as negative transfer, also known as interference (Dulay et al 1982:101). In this background section I will offer a more detailed discussion of the terms mentioned and present different researchers views concerning native language interference. I will also show how linguistic studies of interference have developed over time. Contrastive Analysis During the 1940s and 1950s most errors were ascribed to interference and consequently a major part of applied linguistic research was devoted to comparing the mother tongue and the target language in order to predict or explain the errors made by learners with particular linguistic backgrounds (Corder 1981:1). This approach was the first to elucidate the problems of interference and was referred to as contrastive analysis. Contrastive analysis influenced the field of applied linguistics and second language learning for over two decades. But eventually, many linguists abandoned contrastive analysis and adopted a more positive view of the role of the first language in second language acquisition (Dulay et al 1982:97). Yet, it is still important to understand this approach because it shaped so much early linguistic research and therefore underlies much current second language teaching methodology and material (Dulay et al 1982:97). Contrastive analysis assumed that a learners first language interferes with his or her acquisition of a second language, and that it therefore constitutes the major obstacle to successful mastery of the new language (Dulay et al 1982:97). Lightbown Spada give a similar explanation: Contrastive analysis hypothesis predicts that where there are similarities between the first and the second languages, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty (Lightbown Spada 1997:23). Comparing the mother tongue and the target language was considered useful for teachers, who could predict learner errors beforehand, and thus prevent them (Heny 1994:162). However, contrastive analysis was also criticised by those who considered it impossible to predict when the errors would be made. Furthermore, the errors which learners commonly made in class were not necessarily the ones predicted by contrastive analysis. There were errors that could not be explained simply by noting the differences between the languages involved, and sometimes the errors that a contrastive analysis did predict were not found in practice (Allwright Bailey 1991:83). Contrastive analysis was considered misleading as a basis for teaching, since it encouraged the idea that first language influence was the only thing that caused learners errors (Heny 1994:165). Further questioning of the relevance of contrastive analysis was the result of the classification of learners errors in studies that became known as error analyses (Odlin 1989:18). These kinds of studies were developed during the 1970s and involved a detailed description and analysis of the kinds of errors second language learners make. The goal of this research was to discover what learners really know about the language (Lightbown Spada 1997:55). The difference between these two methods was that error analysis did not set out to predict errors on the basis of interference from the native language. Rather, it sought to discover and describe the different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners acquire the foreign language. One of the main challenges for error analysts was to decide what category to assign a particular error to. For example, omitting an article in English may possibly be a case of simplification (see section 2.3) with a Spanish speaker but a case of transfer with a Korean speaker (Odlin 1989:19). Lightbown Spada (1997:55) also point out that error analysis was based on the theory that the speech of second language learners is a system in its own right, one which is rule governed and predictable and very much like the system of young first language learners. Transfer The concept of transfer is based on the idea that previous learning influences on subsequent learning. In language learning, this denotes that the patterns and forms of the native language are imposed on the second language (Gass, 1979). When these are identical of the two languages and the learner uses the first language in producing the second, positive transfer takes place. The result is a correct target language pattern or form. When they are different, using those of the mother tongue to produce the equivalent form or pattern in the target language causes negative transfer. The errors that result are called interference errors. During the 1950s and 1960s, interlingual transfer was considered to be the most significant factor in learning foreign language (Politzer, 1965). However, the paradigm shift that occurred in linguistics and psychology in the 1960s established a change of focus. The emergence of generative grammar and cognitive psychology created the new discipline of psycholinguistics. Language acquisition was no longer considered as a process of forming correct habits through repetition and reinforcement, but as the result of an innate language acquisition device which operates through a process of hypothesis testing (Chomsky, 1959). Due to transfer had been associated with the habit formation theory of language acquisition, the shift to generative grammar brought with it much less stress on interference and more stress on developmental processes, learning strategies, and the structure of the target language as sources of error (Richards, 1974). Second language acquisition came to be considered as a â€Å"creative construction† process rather than the transfer of habits from the native language to the target (Dulay Burt, 1975). Kellerman (1983) addressed the relationship between L1 knowledge and interpretation of the figurative use of the L2. His studies showed that the L1 plays a role in L2 idiom processing even though L2 learners are less likely to transfer L1 knowledge when they perceive the meaning as figurative. There is a large number of terms used in discussions of the influence of the native language on a second language. One of these terms is transfer, which is also known as cross-linguistic influence. Some researchers virtually denied the existence of language transfer and others have been sceptical about its importance. Yet there are also researchers who have argued for the importance of transfer and have gone so far as to consider it the paramount fact of second language acquisition (Odlin 1989:3). However, a more balanced perspective has emerged by now, in which the role of transfer is acknowledged and in which transfer is seen to interact with a host of other factors not yet fully understood (Odlin 1989:9). A definition of the term transfer is given by Gass Selinker (2001:66): â€Å"It is a term that was used extensively in the first half of the century and refers to the psychological process whereby prior knowledge is carried over into a new learning situation.† Odlin (1989:27) offers another definition of transfer for the context of applied linguistics: â€Å"Transfer is the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.† However, Odlin (1989:28) also says that it is difficult to give a precise and correct definition of transfer as long as there is no existing adequate definition of language. While there are many definitions of transfer, the concept can be divided into positive and negative transfer. Both types of transfer refer to the automatic and subconscious use of old behaviour in new learning situations (Dulay et al 1982:101). Positive transfer results in correct performance because the new behaviour is the same, and as appropriate as, the old (Dulay et al 1982:101). According to Odlin (1989:36), the effects of positive transfer are only determinable through comparison of the success of groups with different native languages. Such comparison often shows that cross-linguistic similarities can produce positive transfer in several ways. Similarities between native language and target language vocabulary can reduce the time needed to develop good reading comprehension. Similarities between vowel systems can make the identification of vowel sounds easier. Similarities between writing systems can give learners a head start in reading and writing the target language. And s imilarities in syntactic structures can facilitate the acquisition of grammar. Learners speaking a language with a syntax similar to that of the target language tend to have less difficulty with, for example, articles, word order, and relative clauses (Odlin 1989:36). In contrast, negative transfer refers to those instances of transfer which result in errors because old, habitual behaviour is different from that to be learned (Dulay et al 1982:101). Negative transfer involves divergences from norms in the target language and it is often relatively easy to identify. Although negative transfer tends to be associated with production errors, there are other ways in which an individuals second language performance may differ from the behaviour of native speakers. Some examples of these are underproduction, overproduction and misinterpretation (Odlin 1989:37). The native language can influence the interpretation of target language messages, and sometimes that influence leads to learners inferring something very different from what speakers of the target language would infer. Misinterpretation may occur, for example, when native and target language word-order patterns or cultural assumptions differ (Odlin 1989:37). Gass Selinker (2001:68) consider the terms positive and negative transfer debatable. The question is whether transfer can be positive or negative at all: â€Å"The terms refer to the product, although the use implies a process. There is a process of transfer; there is not a negative or positive transfer.† Both Dulay et al (1982:101) and Heny (1994:164) are instead questioning how one can know exactly what is being transferred. Is it principles, word-patterns or sound? However, while it appears to be difficult to determine exactly what is being transferred, most linguists do agree that the mother tongue can affect learners English in several ways (Swan Smith 2001:11). Interlanguage The term interlanguage,introduced by Larry Selinker (1972), was coined in the belief that the language learners language was a sort of hybrid between his or her first language and the target language. The evidence of this was the large number of errors which could be ascribed to the process of transfer. But when second language acquisition researchers began to collect data from learners not receiving formal instruction, particularly children, the production of transfer errors was generally found to be quite small. Clearly interlanguage was not simply a hybrid language but had a developmental history of its own (Corder 1981:2). Some of the structures produced by the learners are to be found neither in their first language nor in the language they are learning, i.e. no native speaker of either language ever produces them (Malmkjà ¦r 2004:83). Lightbown Spada (1997:122) explain that interlanguage is systematic, but also dynamic and continually evolving as learners receive more input a nd revise their hypotheses about the second language. Culture and language Interconnection of languages and cultures, the necessity of their co-learning makes no doubts. Learning foreign languages as means of communication between representatives of different people and cultures must be inseparable with the world and culture of people, speaking these languages. In his sociocultural cognitive theory of development Leo Vygotsky, a great Russian psychologist, put culture and social factors into the central chain. The driving force of development, according to him, is external factors. It differs from most other social approaches in considering interaction as an essential power rather than as just a helpful condition for learning. In the foundation of his theory there three principles: the importance of culture, pivotal role of a language and interaction of a learner with an environment. The critique Thus, the authors of the reviewing article, Boers and Demecheleer, tried to gauge the impact of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic differences on language learners interpretation of imageable idioms, concluding with a set of guidelines to anticipate and remedy the comprehension problems of figurative expressions. First, the authors presented only brief classification of idioms regarding the determination the degree of semantic transparency of an idiom, different factors can influence, such as whether the idioms are non-decomposable, or reflect a common metaphoric theme, or are closely associated with a given metaphoric theme; there are idioms with a clear etymological origin as well as culture-specific grounding. Besides, idioms have certain specific features, such as: idioms are used as a one meaning unit in discourse; having holistic meaning, idioms are not created all over again in the discourse, but are retained and retrieved from the memory as ready word combinations; idioms have permanent content of their components. Moreover, idioms can be classified according to whether they contain a noun phrase denoting a person, subject or phenomenon: better half, chip of the old block, copy cat; or a verbal phrase, designating an action or a process: to keep the fall rolling, to catch someones eye, to hit the ceiling; attributive phrases, denoting features, qualities of a person or object: all thumbs, blue blood, proud as a peacock, armed to the teeth; adverbial phrases, specifying characteristics of an action or process: with flying colours, till Kingdom come, till the cows come home; modal phrases, denoting various attitude of a speaker towards a situation: its another pair of shoes, its not my cup of tea. Second, in the article there is lack of SLA theory considered. The authors do not specify any second language acquisition theory in particular, limiting with some remarks Further, for the experiment only 24 idioms were selected involving the imagery of hat, sleeves, ship and food. I subject that this amount of idioms is enough for the experiment as well as the imagery unlikely reflect the culture and traditions of the English people and their language. I would suggest including the following imagery that inherent to the English culture: bird, fish, horse, pig, such as: like a bird, a bird in the bush; a fish out of water, a loose fish; beat a dead horse, horse and horse; when pigs fly, buy a pig in a poke. Moreover, the selected idioms such as Hang up ones hat, Keep something under ones hat are old-fashioned and less used now. The authors included only idioms which did not have one-to-one equivalents in French. In order to assess the possible impact of cross-cultural differences on the ‘guessability of these idioms to French speakers, the authors called in the help five ‘blind judges, who were native speakers of English, and experienced EFL teachers. However, I suppose, to be confident that they have no one-to-one equivalent in the French language; these idioms have to be considered by French native speakers as well. However, the transferability of the idioms appears to be the major factor in learning a second language, as a learner can connect the knowledge of his native figurative language with the foreign one. The problem is cross-cultural differences. For example, it is very difficult to find one-to-one equivalent. During the experiment the participants were given about 20 minutes to try to guess the meaning of the selected idioms without contextual clues. Id like to point out that in real life we meet idioms in all forms of discourse: in conversations, lectures, movies, radio broadcasts, and television programmes. Thereby, I assume that the context will facilitate the comprehension, and giving idioms without any context is not natural. The results of the experiment were the following: almost 35% of the respondents answers were at least partially correct. The researchers concluded that the semantics of many idioms need not be tackled as arbitrary in language-learning contexts. Students can be encouraged to first try to decode imageable idioms independently. i.e. as a problem-solving task requiring a deeper level of cognitive processing, before resorting to the teacher or the dictionary for corroboration or falsification (Lennon 1998). A deep level of cognitive processing is known to be beneficial for long-term memory storage (Ellis 1994). Moreover, in common learning conditions idioms are given in a context, which facilitates comprehension considerably (Cooper 1999). The analysis of research methodology In their experiment the authors applied questionnaires. This type of data collection is the most widespread, first, because it is self-administered and can be given to a large groups of subjects at the same time, besides it is less expensive to administer that other procedures such as interviews. Second, since the same questionnaire is given to all subjects, the data are more uniform and standard, as well as since they are usually given to all subjects of the research at exactly the same time, the data are more accurate. And one more is not the least of the factors is anonymity; subjects tend to share information of a sensitive nature more easily. The research involved 78 French-speaking students of University of Brussels. The group was quite heterogeneous, and in general their level of English proficiency was intermediate. The participants were given twenty minutes to try to guess the meaning of the selected twelve idioms without contextual clues. In order to avoid a common problem of questionnaires as misunderstanding of questions themselves as well as the proper replies to the questions relevant to research in second language, as subjects very often have obstacles in reading and providing answers in L2, the participants were allowed to use the French language to present their ideas. Discussion The authors propose practical guidelines for the teachers whose learners encounter an unfamiliar idiom in a text, i.e. a strategy, involving six stages, to anticipate and remedy comprehension problems. Therewith it is pointed out that all six stages will always need to be passed through in practice, but can be taken as a checklist to remind teachers of the variables involved in idiom comprehension. Above all these stages the crucial point to my mind is resorting to contextual clues to infer the meaning of an idiom. It is necessary to persuade learners to comparison and correlation of language devices of contacting languages all the time when it can prevent the interference and make positive transfer. Linguistic competence suggests mastering of certain amount of formal knowledge connected with various language aspects: phonetic system, vocabulary, grammatical structure during their historical development and at the modern stage, as well as certain skills of application of these language means for different linguistic purposes, such as language analysis, including forms and meanings; analysis of special features of language units application separately and in context; comparison of various language phenomena at different periods of language development; consolidation or differentiation of language phenomena by a certain factor (factors); etymological analysis of a language unit, existing in a modern language system. The achievement of these goals facilitates the development of linguistically oriented thinking of the learners, namely ability to carry out linguistic analysis of various language phenomena and factors, single out the principal and secondary, draw a conclusion out of t he analysis results, generalize the received data, compare linguistic facts, classify them. Besides, taking into account â€Å"zone of proximal development† of L.S. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, which implies solving a problem with the assistance of an â€Å"expert†, who provides ‘scaffolding, and then internalizes the solution, the authors suggest to corroborate or falsify the learners hypotheses. If learners are on the right track, then offer further guidance towards the full interpretation. If they stay in the dark, then clarify the meaning of the idiom. Once the meaning of the idiom is established Boers and Demecheleer offer to invite the learners to ‘motivate it. This stage is meant to show the non-arbitrary nature of many figurative expressions. Various approaches can be tried. One can associate the idiom with a more vivid or concrete scene. For instance, Passing the hat around can be associated with the scene of someone collecting money for a street musician, Having something up ones sleeve can be linked with the scene of a magician performing tricks, which is a common source of verbal humour, can be a fruitful technique to paint more vivid pictures in the learners mind (Irujo 1986). On the whole, concreteness and vivid imagery facilitate the retention of novel vocabulary (Sokmen 1997). One can also try to lay bare ‘logic of a given idiom. For example, Kill two birds with one stone obviously means to take more advantages doing one thing. Evidently, not all imageable idioms lend themselves easily to such explanations, but the cognitive effort put into the brainstorming activity may nevertheless be beneficial for retention and language awareness. A complementary approach to ‘motivating idioms is to look for their possible etymological origin. The lions mouth, for example, has biblical origin, meaning a dangerous place; to carry coals to Newcastle implies to do useless things as Newcastle is the centre of the English coal industry. Finally, if the idiom exemplifies a metaphoric theme that is more salient in the target culture than in the learners culture, then raise the learners awareness of the cross-cultural variation. Though this particular article has not been responded, cited, or used in any research or writing, having looked through the recent studies, I can find that Boers and Demecheleers scope of work has developed into Another prominent approach of Conclusion Interaction of languages is all possible varieties of mutual influence, interpenetration of two or more languages and their dialects. Borrowing of different linguistic factors by a language from another, as well as results of language interaction I consider as an enrichment process. However, dominance and subjection cannot be avoided and in linguistic contacts there is no language equity, one of the languages always subdues another. Thus, learning a foreign language a man profits to look at the world from other, not usual, point of view. It is not without reason there is a proverb: â€Å"How many languages you know, so many times you are a man†.

Eliminating Cancer with the Mind :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Eliminating Cancer with the Mind Over 1 million Americans are diagnosed with cancer each year and over 1,500 lives will be lost to cancer today (1). Many people undergo grueling hours of chemotherapy and radiation to discover that their cancer has spread to other parts of their body and that the treatments need to begin all over again. Unfortunately, there is no cure for cancer at the present time. Modern medical treatments attack the cancer and treat the organs affected by the disease, but pay little attention to the other areas of significance in the person's life. This calls for a new treatment that extends beyond the organs overcome by the disease and focuses on the person as a whole. Guided therapy, relying on the idea that the mind can affect the functions of the body and thus make people feel better, claims to do just that. But does it really work? Throughout history, the power of the imagination has helped people heal. In Eastern Medicine, envisioning one's well being has always been a large part of the healing process. In Tibetan medicine for example, physicians believe that creating a mental image of the healing god improves one's chances for recovery (2). The ancient Greeks, including Aristotle and Hippocrates, also had their patients use forms of imagery to help them heal. People continue to rely on imagery to hasten the healing process. Psychologists and neuroscientists use evidence from Positive Emission Tomography (PET) scans of the brain to demonstrate that guided imagery is effective. In a PET scan, the subject is injected with a small amount of radioactively labeled water. When an area of the brain is working hard and processing information, more blood flows through it and higher levels of the radioactive water are detected (3). In terms of brain activity, there is ample scientific evidence that imagining an experience stimulates the visual cortex, the same region of the brain activated by the actual experience (4). Stimulating the brain with imagery can have a direct effect on the nervous and endocrine systems, which ultimately affect the immune system. Thus, in terms of brain activity, picturing something and actually experiencing it are equivalent. Psychologists believe that relaxation, an essential part of guided imagery, is responsible for producing images and triggering the unconscious, which generates emotions (5). Research has shown that the physiological impact of relaxation is due to its inhibition of cortisol, a hormone released by the body in response to stress.

Comparing Tolstoy’s novel, The Death of Ivan Ilyich and the Russian Sta

Comparing Tolstoy’s novel, The Death of Ivan Ilyich and the Russian State In Leo Tolstoy’s novel The Death of Ivan Ilyich, the title character’s life changes in several important ways during the course of the story. First, his relationships with the people in his life change. Secondly, he engages in different â€Å"forms of diversion† as his life goes through different stages. Thirdly, his attitude towards wealth and possessions changes near the end of his life. In addition, we also see a gradual realization and acceptance of death. One could draw interesting parallels between the progression of Ivan Ilyich’s character and the Russian state and leadership in the latter part of the Imperial period. The changes in Ivan’s relationships with other people are seen best with his friends and family. Through most of the story, we see that he chooses friends based on social standing. He even applies this to his family, as illustrated near the beginning. His younger brother, having only obtained an appointment in the Railway Division, is labeled a failure by his family and avoided at all costs. Ivan Ilyich’s relationship with his wife is also of particular interest. He seems fairly happy while a newlywed, but becomes quite annoyed with his wife for creating â€Å"distasteful and ill-mannered scenes† (Tolstoy 56; ch. 2) around the time of her pregnancy. At first he tries to ignore her by carrying on with his former social life, but eventually finds that his work is the only excuse that can get him away from her. He goes on avoiding his wife with varying success until the onset of his illness, being confined more and more to his home. During this last st age of his life, he purposely starts arguments with his family, ... ...was unable to control it any longer. The Duma which he had created instantiated a new provisional government and Nicholas finally abdicated the throne. As has been demonstrated, character changes in Tolstoy’s The Death of Ivan Ilyich find parallels in Russian power specifically through its rulers’ foreign and domestic policies. Though never expressly implied, one can assume that the author, having been quite politically involved, considered such things while writing his novella. We must not put biting social and political satire past a man who, among other things, was involved in the mass emigration of oppressed Russian Jews to the United States and Canada (Riasanovsky 397). Works Cited Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. A History of Russia. 6th ed. New York: Oxford, 2000. Tolstoy, Leo. The Death of Ivan Ilyich. Bantam Classic ed. New York: Bantam, 1981.

Why I Chose An All Womens College :: essays research papers

Rasheedah Phillips Why Bryn Mawr? As a young woman growing up in an urbanized setting and attending public schools all of my life, when the time came to start planning and searching for colleges, I searched for schools that I felt fit my persona, that I would be comfortable attending for some of the most integral years of my life. My search included schools such as Temple University, and Pennsylvania State University, higher education institutions that allowed me to challenge myself, but at the same time would put me in a setting where I would be with others just like myself, fitting into the standard American university fashion. The thought of an all women’s college never once crossed my mind in envisioning my â€Å"perfect school†, and when it was introduced to me, it was through the prodding of a high school counselor who felt that my intelligence would be better realized and liberated at a school such as Bryn Mawr. After carefully researching Bryn Mawr and all it had to offer as an elite academic institution with stringent admissions requirements and its strong reputation as one of the best liberal art colleges in the nation, I had little doubt that, as far as my intellect and devotion to a rigorous curriculum went, I could run with the best of them. But I remained skeptical that, socially, financially, mentally, and to some degree, academically, I could fit in with the top women in the country who got accepted into a school such as this. I certainly had my biases about all-women colleges, and to find that Bryn Mawr was the best of the best certainly did not help to curb them; if anything, i t created more. My prejudices remained intact up until the day of my scheduled campus visit, overnight stay, and interview on October 7-8, 2001. Stepping up to the door of the admissions office, many of my resolves all but dissolved, as I was kindly greeted by several groups of women who guided me through registration, campus tours, alumnae speeches, and a most excellent dinner, attended by the College President and a presentation of classical music played by four talented young women. I was absolutely enthralled by the beauty of the campus, and pleasantly taken aback by the size, cleanliness, and grandeur of the residence halls. Though these things did help to curtail much of my cynicism about the â€Å"all-women college†, I believe that the experience that really attracted me to Bryn Mawr began when my hostess picked me up in the admissions office.